In the mid-1800s, Europe underwent dramatic changes that would reshape the continent and ultimately influence the entire world. Following the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, a wave of nationalism swept across Europe, leading to the birth of new nations and the transformation of old ones.

The Birth of Modern Italy
By 1861, the Italian peninsula, which had been divided into multiple small states for centuries, finally united under one flag. Led by key figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Camillo di Cavour, the movement known as the Risorgimento (meaning “resurgence”) brought together various Italian states under the leadership of King Victor Emmanuel II. This unification marked the birth of the modern Italian nation, though it wouldn’t be completely unified until 1870 when Rome was finally incorporated.

The Creation of the German Empire
Similarly, Germany emerged as a unified nation in 1871 under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, Prussia’s “Iron Chancellor.” Through a combination of diplomatic skill and military might, Bismarck succeeded in uniting the various German states into a powerful empire under Prussian leadership. The defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) solidified German power and led to the creation of the German Empire, with Wilhelm I as its emperor.

The Age of Imperialism
As these newly unified nations grew stronger, European powers entered an intense period of imperial competition. This era of “New Imperialism” (1870-1914) saw European nations racing to establish colonies and spheres of influence across Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. The major powers included:

• Britain: Already possessing a vast empire, Britain continued to expand its territories, particularly in Africa
• France: Established colonies in North and West Africa, as well as Southeast Asia
• Germany: Late to imperialism but aggressive in acquiring territories in Africa and the Pacific
• Belgium: King Leopold II personally controlled the Congo Free State
• Italy: Sought colonies in Africa, though with limited success

Motivations for Imperialism
Several factors drove this imperial expansion:

• Economic interests (raw materials and new markets)
• Strategic military positions
• National prestige
• The “civilizing mission” (spreading European culture)

Growing Tensions
This period of imperial competition created increasing tensions among European powers. The “Scramble for Africa” led to numerous conflicts and diplomatic crises. By the early 1900s, these imperial rivalries, combined with growing nationalism and complex alliance systems, would contribute to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

Impact on Indigenous Peoples
The expansion of European power had devastating consequences for indigenous peoples across the world. Traditional ways of life were disrupted, natural resources were exploited, and local populations were often subjected to harsh colonial rule.

This period of history shows how nationalism, initially a force for unification within Europe, evolved into a competitive force that drove nations to seek power and influence across the globe, setting the stage for future global conflicts.

Crash Course Content

• Nationalism
• Italian and German Unification
• Imperialism

Sources

Benjamin Constant, On the Limits of Popular Sovereignty (1815)
Giuseppe Mazzini, Young Italy (1831)

Joseph Chamberlain, “The White Man’s Burden”

Rudyard Kipling, The White Man’s Burden, 1899

Lin Tse-Hsü, Letter to Queen Victoria (1839)

Charles Darwin, Natural Selection (selected readings)
Samuel Wilberforce, Darwin’s Faults (1860)
Thomas Huxley, Darwin’s Virtues (1860)
Herbert Spencer, Man Versus the State (1884)
Pope Leo XIII, “Rerum Novarum” (1891)
A. V. Iartsev, Proclamation (1873)
Alexander III, April Manifesto (1881)
Douglas Hyde, On the Necessity for De-Anglicizing Ireland (1892)
William E. Gladstone, The Case for Home Rule (1886)
Marquess of Hartington, The Case Against Home Rule (1886)

Hermann Ahlwardt, “The Semitic Versus the Teutonic Race” (1896)
Theodor Herzl, The Jewish State (1896)
Joseph Chamberlain, The True Conception of Empire (1897)
Joseph Chamberlain, The Boer War Defended (1900)

John Hobson, Imperialism, 1902

Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (1902)

Correspondence and Report from His Majesty’s Consul at Boma Respecting the Administration of the Independent State of the Congo

Joseph Chamberlain, “I Believe in a British Empire” (1903)
David Lloyd George, The Boer War Criticized (1900)
Friedrich Nietzsche, “The Will to Power” (1901) and “The Antichrist”
John Hobson, Imperialism (1902)

Mohandas Gandhi, “Indian Home Rule” (1908)
Francisco Madero, Plan de San Luis Potosi (1910)
Plan de Ayala (1911)