Psychology of Learning

Module 03: Elicited Behaviors & Habituation

Key Terms

a-process: In opponent-process theory, the initial emotional reaction to a stimulus; fast-acting, remains at maximum strength while the stimulus is present, and decays rapidly when the stimulus ends.

Afferent Neurons: Sensory neurons that carry signals from receptors to the central nervous system; the first component of a reflex arc.

Anhedonia: The inability to feel pleasure; a manifestation of the strengthened opponent process in former drug addicts.

Aplysia: A marine snail (sea slug) with a simple nervous system used extensively in research on the neural mechanisms of habituation and sensitization.

Axon Terminals: The end portions of neurons where neurotransmitters are released into synapses.

b-process: In opponent-process theory, the opponent emotional reaction that follows the a-process; slower to develop, strengthens with repeated presentations, and decays slowly.

Babinski Reflex: An infant reflex in which stimulation of the sole of the foot causes the toes to fan out; typically disappears by age 2.

Basic Emotions: The six emotions recognized universally across cultures: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise (Ekman, 1973).

Circumplex: A circular arrangement used to represent relationships among emotions; Plutchik’s model arranges eight primary emotions in opposing pairs around a wheel.

Cocktail Party Effect: The ability to focus attention on one conversation while filtering out background noise; relies partly on habituation.

Cognitive Dissonance: A motivational state occurring when a person has two incompatible thoughts; the discomfort motivates behavior to reduce the inconsistency.

Comparator: A component of motivational systems that compares actual input (current state) with reference input (desired state) and activates behavior when discrepancy exists.

Comparator Mechanism: In kineses, the mechanism that compares current conditions to a reference level and initiates movement when conditions are unfavorable.

Dishabituation: The recovery of a habituated response following presentation of a novel stimulus.

Dual-Process Theory: The theory proposed by Groves and Thompson stating that habituation and sensitization occur simultaneously when a stimulus is presented, with behavior reflecting the stronger process.

Efferent Neurons: Motor neurons that carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and organs; the final component of a reflex arc.

Emotion: Physiological changes and conscious feelings of pleasantness or unpleasantness, aroused by external or internal stimuli, that lead to behavioral reactions.

Ethology: The study of animal behavior in natural environments; ethologists identified fixed action patterns and sign stimuli.

External Stimuli: Stimuli received from the environment through sense organs that can trigger emotional responses.

Extinction: The reduction in conditioned responding that occurs when the CS is presented repeatedly without the US.

Facilitating Interneurons: Neurons involved in sensitization that enhance neurotransmitter release from sensory neurons, amplifying responses.

Fixed Action Pattern: An elicited, stereotyped response sequence displayed by all members of a species; triggered by sign stimuli and runs to completion once initiated.

Gill-Withdrawal Reflex: In Aplysia, the reflexive withdrawal of the siphon and gill when touched; used extensively to study habituation and sensitization.

Grasp Reflex: An infant reflex in which stimulation of the palm causes the hand to close tightly around the stimulating object.

Habituation: A decrease in the strength of an elicited response resulting from repeated presentations of the stimulus.

Heliotropism: A tropism in which plants grow toward a light source due to differential growth rates on shaded versus illuminated sides.

Human Universals: Traits, behaviors, and institutions (such as music, religion, marriage, and facial expressions of emotion) that appear in every known human culture; evidence of evolved species-typical behavioral tendencies.

Instinct: An unlearned sequence of activities characteristic of all members of a species, adaptive for survival or reproduction, requiring only an initial stimulus to trigger.

Internal Stimuli: Stimuli produced by the nervous system and internal organs (thoughts, memories, physiological states) that can trigger emotional responses.

Interneurons: Neurons in the spinal cord that connect sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neurons; the middle component of a reflex arc.

Investigatory Reflex: A reflex in which novel or unexpected stimuli elicit inspection and investigatory behaviors.

Kineses: Random movements that continue until favorable conditions are encountered; undirected activity that increases or decreases based on local conditions.

Leg-Flexion Reflex: A protective reflex in which a painful stimulus causes the leg to flex and withdraw from the source of pain.

Moro Reflex: An infant startle reflex in which sudden motion or loud noise causes the arms to extend outward and then return to the body.

Motivation: A three-step internal process involving activation (energizing behavior), direction (guiding toward a goal), and maintenance (sustaining until goal achievement).

Negative Phototaxis: Directed movement away from a light source; demonstrated by maggots.

Neurotransmitter: Chemical messengers released from axon terminals into synapses; decreased release during habituation, increased release during sensitization.

Opponent-Process Theory: Solomon’s theory that emotions come in opposing pairs, and when one emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed; repeated presentations change the balance between processes.

Patellar Tendon Reflex: The knee-jerk reflex in which tapping below the kneecap causes the leg to kick forward; a classic example of a simple reflex arc.

Physiological Motives: Motives based on biological needs such as hunger, thirst, or sexual arousal.

Proto-Learning: A term for habituation and sensitization, suggesting they are precursors to true learning rather than learning itself.

Psychological Motives: Motives based on cognitive or social needs rather than biological needs.

Pupillary Reflex: A reflex in which bright light causes pupil constriction and darkness causes dilation.

Quasi-Learning: A term for habituation and sensitization, suggesting they are learning-like but simpler and shorter-lasting than true learning.

Reaction Chain: A sequence of fixed action patterns where completion of one pattern provides the stimulus for the next.

Receptor Fatigue: The mechanism underlying sensory adaptation, in which sensory receptors become less responsive due to continued stimulation.

Reflex: An innate, automatic, involuntary response elicited by a specific stimulus; the simplest form of behavior.

Reflex Arc: The three-component neural pathway underlying simple reflexes: afferent neurons, interneurons, and efferent neurons.

Rooting Reflex: An infant reflex in which stimulation of the cheek causes the head to turn toward the stimulus and sucking motions to begin.

Sensitization: An increase in the strength of elicited responses resulting from repeated presentation of a stimulus, especially intense or threatening stimuli.

Sensory Adaptation: A decrease in sensation resulting from receptor fatigue due to repeated stimulation; distinguished from habituation by being receptor-based rather than neural.

Sign Stimulus: A specific stimulus feature that elicits a fixed action pattern; acts like a key that unlocks a specific behavioral program.

Synapse: The connection between neurons where neurotransmitters are released; the site of changes underlying habituation and sensitization.

Taxes: Directed movements toward or away from a stimulus source; oriented movement in a specific direction relative to the stimulus.

Tolerance: The phenomenon where repeated drug use requires increasing doses to achieve the same effect; explained by opponent-process theory as strengthening of the b-process; can also be explained by classical conditioning in which contextual cues become CSs that elicit compensatory CRs opposing the drug’s effects.

Tropism: A whole-body movement forced by a particular stimulus; the organism moves mechanistically toward or away from the stimulus.

Withdrawal Symptoms: Intense negative states experienced when a drug wears off; result from the strengthened b-process no longer balanced by the drug’s effects.