Psychology of Learning

Module 06: Operant Conditioning 1

Summary

Basics of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors shaped by consequences, unlike classical conditioning which involves reflexive responses.

• Thorndike introduced the law of effect: behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are repeated. His puzzle box experiments showed gradual trial‑and‑error learning.
• Guthrie argued for one‑trial learning of movements, with practice building skills through varied conditions.
• Skinner formalized the three‑part contingency (SD → R → SR): a discriminative stimulus cues a response, which is followed by a reinforcing stimulus. Skinner boxes allowed precise study of how consequences shape behavior. This framework explains everyday voluntary actions—from workplace attendance to polite social behavior—through learned consequences.

Four Consequences of Behavior & Shaping

Operant conditioning consequences fall into four categories:

• Positive reinforcement: add something pleasant to increase behavior (e.g., praise, paychecks).
• Negative reinforcement: remove something unpleasant to increase behavior (e.g., stopping an alarm).
• Positive punishment: add something unpleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., speeding tickets).
• Negative punishment: remove something pleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., time‑outs, loss of privileges).

Organisms also learn through generalization (responding similarly to related cues) & discrimination (responding selectively to cues that predict reinforcement). Shaping builds complex behaviors through reinforcement of successive approximations, enabling achievements like toilet training, animal training, & even pigeons guiding missiles. Shaping highlights how reinforcement can gradually construct behaviors outside an organism’s natural repertoire.

Reinforcement Schedules

The timing & frequency of reinforcement profoundly affect behavior:

• Fixed‑ratio (FR): reinforcement after a set number of responses; produces high rates with pauses.
• Fixed‑interval (FI): reinforcement after a set time; produces scalloped patterns with bursts before reinforcement.
• Variable‑ratio (VR): reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; produces the highest, steadiest rates & strong resistance to extinction (e.g., gambling).
• Variable‑interval (VI): reinforcement after unpredictable time intervals; produces steady, moderate responding.

Extinction occurs when reinforcement is removed, often producing an extinction burst (temporary increase in behavior) & possible spontaneous recovery later. Superstitious behavior arises when organisms mistakenly associate random actions with reinforcement, maintained by variable schedules.

Conclusion

Module 06 establishes operant conditioning as the science of voluntary behavior shaped by consequences. From Thorndike’s trial‑and‑error learning to Skinner’s contingency model, it explains how reinforcement & punishment guide actions. The four consequences, shaping techniques, & reinforcement schedules provide powerful tools for understanding & influencing behavior across education, therapy, workplaces, & everyday life.