Psychology of Learning

Module 08: Sports Psychology

Summary

Motor Learning Fundamentals

Motor learning underpins all skill acquisition.

• Types of motor skills: Discrete (short, distinct actions like a tennis serve) vs. continuous (ongoing actions like swimming).
• Closed-loop vs. open-loop control: Beginners rely on feedback (closed-loop), while experts execute rapid, automatic movements (open-loop).
• Feedback: Reinforcement matters less than knowledge of results (KR) & especially knowledge of performance (KP), which provides detailed process information.
• Feedback frequency: Constant feedback aids early learning but creates dependency; reduced feedback builds self-monitoring.
• Practice distribution: Distributed practice (spaced sessions) outperforms massed practice (marathon sessions).
• Observational learning: Watching others enhances practice when combined with direct execution.
• Transfer of training: Skills can transfer positively (mirror tracing across hands) or negatively (interference).
• Ironic errors: Trying hard to avoid mistakes can ironically increase them, especially under pressure.

Arousal & Performance

Performance depends on psychological states as much as physical training.

• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Performance follows an inverted-U curve relative to arousal. Moderate arousal yields optimal performance; too low causes sluggishness, too high causes choking.
• Factors shaping optimal arousal:
  • Task complexity: Simple/gross motor tasks tolerate higher arousal; fine motor tasks require lower arousal.
  • Skill level: Novices need lower arousal; experts can handle higher arousal due to automatization.
  • Personality: Extroverts thrive under higher arousal; introverts under lower.
• Managing arousal: Techniques include energizing routines for under-arousal & relaxation methods for over-arousal.
• Mental imagery: Visualization activates similar neural circuits as actual movement, reinforcing motor programs.
  • Internal imagery: first-person perspective, emphasizing kinesthetic sensations.
  • External imagery: third-person perspective, emphasizing visual form.
• Applications: Imagery supplements physical practice, aids stress management, supports rehabilitation, & enhances confidence.

Theories of Motor Skills Learning

Theoretical frameworks explain how motor skills are acquired & refined.

• Adams’s two-stage theory:
  • Perceptual trace: internal reference of correct performance built through KR.
  • Motor trace: memory of motor commands refined through practice.
  • Early learners rely on KR; experts self-correct using perceptual traces.
• Response chain approach: Sequences learned as stimulus-response links, reinforced at the end. Works for simple chains but fails for rapid sequences due to timing limits.
• Motor program theory (Lashley): Movement sequences are centrally pre-programmed & executed automatically, independent of continuous feedback. Evidence includes typing speed, deafferentation studies, & error patterns.
• Schema theory (Schmidt): Practice develops general rules (schemas) allowing novel movements.
  • Recall schema: links desired outcomes to motor parameters.
  • Recognition schema: predicts expected feedback for error detection.
  • Variable practice strengthens schemas, enabling transfer & adaptability.

Conclusion

Module 08 integrates motor learning fundamentals, psychological influences, & theoretical frameworks. It shows that skill acquisition depends on feedback quality, practice distribution, arousal regulation, & mental rehearsal, while theories like Adams’s traces, motor programs, & schema theory explain the mechanisms behind performance. Together, these insights guide effective coaching, rehabilitation, & athletic training.