12-1: Biological Explanations of Observational Learning
Psychology of Learning
Module 12: Observational Learning 2
Part 1: Biological Explanations of Observational Learning
Looking Back
Module 11 explored what observational learning is (Part 1), how it functions across diverse animal species (Part 2), & psychological explanations including Bandura’s social-cognitive theory with its four essential processes—Attention, Retention, Reproduction, & Motivation (Part 3). Now we turn to biological foundations: Why did observational learning evolve? What neural mechanisms enable it?
Biological Explanations of Social Learning
No matter how many times you demonstrate the technique, it is impossible to teach a gazelle to dribble a basketball—they don’t have hands! Biology constrains what behaviors organisms can learn through observation. Physical limitations, sensory capabilities, & neural architecture determine whether observational learning occurs. But beyond these obvious constraints, biological evolution shaped the very capacity for observational learning. Not only are humans born with the potential to learn to dribble a basketball, they also are born uniquely prepared for social learning. Though many animals exhibit at least some types of observational learning, humans exploit learning through social sources in ways incomparable to other animals. Humans are born ready to learn from others.
Evolution & Social Learning
From an evolutionary perspective, blind imitation can have adaptive value even without cognitive understanding. If a deer smells a bear & runs, other deer will run when they see the running, without ever having smelled the bear. This social transmission of alarm responses increases group survival—one individual’s vigilance protects the group. Natural selection favors organisms capable of learning from others’ experiences because social learning reduces the costs of individual trial-and-error learning.
Consider the advantages of observational learning from an evolutionary perspective. First, observational learning helps organisms avoid danger—they can learn which predators, foods, or situations are dangerous by watching others’ negative experiences, without personally suffering harm. A young primate observing an elder’s snake-avoidance behavior learns snake danger without the potentially fatal experience of being bitten. Second, observational learning enables skill acquisition—organisms can master hunting techniques, tool use, or food processing by observing skilled group members, rather than slowly discovering effective methods independently. Third, observational learning enables cultural transmission—the accumulation of knowledge across generations. Each generation doesn’t start from scratch but builds on previous generations’ discoveries, enabling cumulative cultural evolution. Human culture—from agriculture to technology to science—depends fundamentally on transmitting knowledge through observational learning.
Species with complex social structures show the most sophisticated observational learning. Primates, cetaceans (whales & dolphins), elephants, & social carnivores exhibit extensive social learning because their environments present complex, variable challenges where learning from others provides substantial fitness advantages. Conversely, solitary species or species in stable, unchanging environments show less observational learning because individual trial-and-error or instinct suffices.
The survival value of socially transmitted fear has been demonstrated experimentally. Griffin & Evans (2003) showed that a Tammar wallaby’s fear of a fox (a wallaby predator) acquired through direct experience could be socially transmitted to a predator-naive companion. Ferrari & Chivers (2008) demonstrated social transmission of fear of salamanders in frogs, with the amount of fear transmission increasing as the tutor-to-observer ratio increased.
Mirror Neurons & Social Learning
Mirror neurons are neurons which fire both when an organism performs a behavior & when the organism observes another organism performing the same behavior. These neurons automatically link observation & action, providing a potential neural mechanism for understanding others’ actions & imitating them (Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004).
Discovery of mirror neurons in macaque monkeys by Rizzolatti & colleagues in the 1990s revolutionized understanding of social cognition. Researchers recording from individual neurons in motor cortex (F5 region) found neurons that fired when a monkey grasped food. The surprising discovery came when the monkey observed a researcher grasping food: these same neurons fired during observation. The neurons “mirrored” observed actions—activity patterns during observation resembled patterns during personal action performance. Neurons were recorded using tungsten microelectrodes inserted through the dura, with neuronal activity amplified & monitored on an oscilloscope.
Subsequently, it was found that these neurons responded even better to the actions of other macaques (conspecifics) than to human actions. In humans, mirror neuron systems have been identified through brain imaging studies (fMRI, EEG, TMS). Because we cannot ethically record from individual neurons in humans, human mirror neuron research relies on measuring activity across brain regions. These studies reveal mirror neuron systems in premotor cortex, inferior parietal lobule, & superior temporal sulcus.
Activity in the mirror neuron system is particularly strong when observers are familiar with the observed actions. Calvo-Merino & colleagues (2005) examined dancers watching dance videos. Activity in premotor areas (where mirror neurons are thought to reside) was maximal for ballet dancers watching ballet dancing & for capoeira dancers watching capoeira dancing. Activity was much lower when dancers watched unfamiliar dance styles or when non-dancers watched any style. Expertise in performing a behavior amplifies mirror neuron responses when observing that behavior.
Functions of Mirror Neurons
Mirror neurons may provide the neural foundation for multiple social cognitive abilities. Action understanding: automatically comprehending others’ actions by simulating them in one’s own motor system. If another person reaches into a cookie jar, mirror neuron activation creates an internal simulation of that reaching action, providing intuitive understanding of what they are doing & why. Imitation: directly mapping observed actions onto motor commands for reproducing those actions. Mirror neurons create a common code between observation & execution, facilitating behavioral copying. Empathy: understanding others’ emotions by simulating their emotional expressions in one’s own brain. Brain imaging reveals striking overlap between experiencing emotions & observing others experiencing emotions—the same neural circuits active when we feel pain are activated when we watch someone else experience pain.
Rizzolatti & Craighero (2004) argue that the mirror neuron system forms the foundation of our ability to socialize with others & work cooperatively: “A category of stimuli of great importance for primates, humans in particular, is that formed by actions done by other individuals. If we want to survive, we must understand the actions of others. Furthermore, without action understanding, social organization is impossible.” Mirror neurons enable the theory of mind—the ability to understand that others have mental states, intentions, & goals—which is crucial for true social learning.
Mirror Neurons: A 30-Year Perspective
Since their discovery, mirror neurons have generated both tremendous excitement & significant controversy. Bonini & colleagues (2022) reviewed 30 years of research, noting that while mirror neurons clearly exist in monkey premotor & parietal cortex, many questions remain about their precise function & how they develop. Do mirror neurons directly enable imitation, or do they represent a more general action understanding system? Are they specialized for social cognition, or part of broader motor-cognitive circuits?
Heyes & Catmur (2022) asked “What happened to mirror neurons?” in their critical review. They argue that early enthusiasm may have overstated mirror neurons’ role in social cognition. Their associative sequence learning (ASL) account proposes that mirror neurons develop through Hebbian learning—when we observe someone perform an action & simultaneously perform that action ourselves (as happens during imitation), observation & action neurons become associated. This suggests mirror neurons result from social learning rather than being its innate foundation. The debate continues, with most researchers now favoring a more nuanced view: mirror neurons likely contribute to social cognition but work in concert with many other neural systems.
Natural Selection of Mirror Neurons
Ramachandran (2000) notes that the hominid brain reached its modern size (roughly 1300 cc) about 250,000 years ago, yet many of humanity’s greatest accomplishments occurred much more recently. “The great leap forward” in human evolution—which incorporated complex tool use, clothing, stereotyped dwellings, & widespread cave art—occurred around 40,000 years ago. This was not the direct product of the large human brain. In retrospect, it seems obvious: the selective processes of evolution can only select things an animal is capable of expressing. This means that the potential for these skills would have to arise before the expression of these skills.
Ramachandran argues that these advanced cognitive developments—including language, complex tool use, & empathy—all occurred as a result of the effects of mirror neurons & the ability to imitate which they created. These complex skills allowed for the socialization required for cooperation & large-scale planning. Imagine how much planning was required to hunt a woolly mammoth! According to this theory, the mirror neuron system made it possible for the Egyptians to build the pyramids, & they seem to be at least indirectly responsible for almost every cultural achievement humans have made in the last 40,000 years.
Overimitation: A Human Specialization
Humans are prone to spontaneous imitation of both behaviors & emotions (emotional contagion). This includes even overimitation—copying adult behaviors that have no function & produce no reward. In a classic demonstration, children watched an adult perform several actions on a puzzle box to retrieve a toy, including some actions that were clearly unnecessary (touching irrelevant parts of the box). While chimpanzees skipped the unnecessary actions & used only the efficient solution, human children faithfully copied everything—including the pointless actions. This overimitation appears unique to humans & may represent an adaptation for cultural learning, ensuring acquisition of important but non-obvious knowledge. If an adult performs an action, children assume there must be a good reason, even if they can’t discern it.
Autism & Social Learning
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by differences in social communication & interaction, as well as restricted & repetitive behavior patterns. Many individuals with autism engage in echolalia—an imitation of words that have just been heard. This phenomenon might make it appear that individuals with autism are excellent imitators. However, imitative deficits in children with autism have been reported by various researchers, & it has been suggested that this inability to imitate at an early age is the source of other problems & deficits seen in autism (Baron-Cohen et al., 1994; Beadle-Brown & Whiten, 2004).
Showing an apparent deficit in theory of mind, children with autism seem to have difficulty understanding the perspective of another. If a child with autism is asked to demonstrate a gesture of a person they are facing, such as holding the hand palm out, the child may hold their hand with the palm facing themselves. Since the palm of the demonstrator had been facing the child, it is in some ways imitative to also face their palm to themselves, but this seems to indicate a lack of ability to take the demonstrator’s perspective.
The broken mirror hypothesis proposed that autism involves reduced mirror neuron activity, explaining social learning deficits. Dapretto & colleagues (2005) found reduced activity in mirror neuron areas when high-functioning autistic children watched & imitated facial expressions, compared to neurotypical children. Though the children with autism were able to imitate the facial expressions they saw, they had trouble understanding the emotional states being observed.
However, recent systematic reviews have found insufficient evidence to support the broken mirror hypothesis in its original form. The brains of people with autism differ from neurotypical brains in many areas including the hippocampus, cerebellum, amygdala, & others (Brambilla et al., 2003). Mirror neuron differences may be one piece of a much more complex puzzle rather than a core cause of autism. Children with autism are less likely to cognitively “mirror” & less likely to follow someone else’s gaze as neurotypical toddlers do, but these differences may result from various neural & developmental factors, not solely mirror neuron dysfunction.
Looking Forward
Part 2 examines one of psychology’s most famous experimental series—Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments demonstrating observational learning of aggression. We explore how children learn aggressive behaviors from models, the critical distinction between learning & performance, & implications for understanding media violence effects.